This text by Clara Dunoyer is an excerpt from her dissertation. It was written for the French association Fédération Inter-enseignements de Hatha-Yoga (FIDHY) and was  published in “FIDHY Infos N°96“ on March 2024

Yoga and cultural appropriation: deciphering the issues at stake

Let’s start by defining cultural appropriation, a term that is complex in many respects and often misunderstood.

Cultural appropriation is a concept that originated in the art world in the 90s, and mainly concerned the acquisition of artifacts from other cultures by Western museums. The artifacts are placed in a cold space, emptied of their context and deprived of their original uses. Every day, the eyes of hundreds of Westerners will rest on them, revelling in their exoticism. Since the late 2000s, with the development of critical studies in the USA, the term has been extended to refer to the use of tangible or intangible elements (symbols, objects or ideas) of a so-called “dominated” culture by members of another, so-called “dominant” culture, whatever the field.

Rodnay William, an anthropologist with a doctorate in social sciences, has been working on issues of black religiosity and race for over twenty years. He gives the following definition of cultural appropriation: “A mechanism of oppression by which a dominant group takes possession of an inferiorized culture, emptying its productions, customs, traditions and other cultural elements of meaning.” 1

So we’re talking about cultural appropriation in a context of domination. Very often, this borrowing is driven by a fascination for a culture, with no intent to harm, but with an exoticizing gaze typical of neo-colonial thinking. In the U.S., this is particularly significant when we see young white Americans dressing up in clichés of traditional Native American dress for Halloween, even though these peoples were discriminated against and demographically impacted by the arrival of European settlers. When there is cultural appropriation, there is no sharing, the communities receive nothing in exchange, and the term “appropriation” refers more to a feeling of dispossession, of spoliation.

What about in yoga? Cultural appropriation in yoga refers to adopting aspects of Indian culture in yoga practice without fully respecting or understanding their cultural meaning and origin. This can include the use of cultural symbols, mantras, the claim to be linked to Indian spiritual traditions without having a understanding or authentic connection with them, or claim to have originated a practice. Some people also feel that a Western person profiting from the practice of yoga by turning it into a “business” can be considered cultural appropriation, as it implies the use of a culture that does not belong to them for personal gain.

We commonly speak of cultural goods, heritage or cultural heritage. These terms may suggest that culture is something that belongs to a territory or its people. But culture is not palpable and has no borders. Culture is undeniably a precious asset, but it is a common asset, meaning that it cannot be reduced to private property. Consequently, it is difficult to rationally justify the idea of “cultural theft”. Nevertheless, on an emotional level, there can be a feeling of theft, and this is just as valid.

Some believe that imitation, borrowing and reinterpretation are at the origin of all cultures, and guarantee their vitality. Acknowledging that the appropriation of cultural elements from other cultures is a constant in history does not mean that they can be unequal or take the form of domination and exploitation. The challenge, then, is not to draw impermeable cultural boundaries, but to question and combat the reproduction of inequalities.

Vinyasa, Yin, Hatha, flow, Power, rocket, warrior, Kriya, Yin Yang, Kundalini, Ashtanga, Jivamukti, Bikram, Iyengar, pharaoh yoga, chair yoga, accro yoga restorative, Nidra, prenatal, viniyoga, yoga dance, face yoga…

There are so many forms of yoga that it’s difficult to list them all.

The yoga we practice today is the result of years of mutations, but are we heading for a loss of meaning?

Ysé Tardan-Masquelier clearly defends her point of view in the encyclopaedia she edited: “It’s not a question of a loss of meaning or spirituality, but of a multiplication of the senses. There is no such thing as “true yoga” or “false yoga”. All forms of yoga are hybridizations of different cultures, reinterpretations of existing elements”.

But how can we avoid the pitfalls of an appropriation that would impoverish and denature?

It seems to me that this is at the very heart of cultural appropriation: the mutation of yoga as a path, a way, towards a practice defined in space and time, giving it the quality of a consumer good. As a result, “we’re witnessing an exponential segmentation of this competitive market, in which you have to differentiate yourself to promote your method”, confirms Zineb Fahsi, author of Yoga, nouvel esprit du capitalisme. Some variants of yoga are now registered trademarks, such as “Warrior Yoga®” created by Aria Crescendo, or “Fly Yoga®” by Florie Ravinet. And long before them, Bikram Choudhury had already branded his “hot yoga” in the 1990s.

The relationship between yoga and capitalism is a complex one, with a fascinating historical genesis. Here’s a brief summary: under colonial rule, yogis in India were seen as too independent and elusive, and so laws were put in place to limit their influence, contributing to a negative perception of yogis. During the Industrial Revolution, Western intellectual currents turned away from modernity and towards Asia, perceived as the repository of ancient wisdom. Swami Vivekananda influenced this perspective by presenting Hinduism as compatible with modernity, thus opening yoga to the world. By assimilating British ideas, yoga succeeded in reintegrating Indian society, while at the same time becoming a means for Indians to regain their independence. At the same time, yoga emerged in Western society as practitioners travelled the world. In the 60s, it seduced young Westerners by offering the prospect of a different kind of happiness from that based on material consumption. While consumer society flourished, promoting happiness through material goods such as cars and household appliances, yoga offered an alternative. It taught that happiness did not lie in the possession of material goods, but in an inner quest for self-realization. But today, happiness is displayed on every screen in the form of special offers for yoga studios or online practice platforms. Now, fitting a weekly yoga class into your busy schedule is a guarantee of improved well-being in this demanding world, better urban stress management and even improved performance at work. All in all, yoga has become a tangible response to the quest for happiness and well-being in a society that never ceases to place demands on its members.

The confusion probably stems from the concept of happiness. The aim of yoga is to free oneself from the causes of suffering, to free oneself from the pains of existence. If we translate this quickly into Western terms, it’s equivalent to finding happiness. However, the word happiness does not exist in the vocabulary of yoga, which prefers the word contentment, which refers more to interiority. This process of eradicating sorrow fully engages the individual in changing his or her relationship with the world. But this aim, if read too hastily and superficially, can have the opposite effect. Yoga can thus be put at the service of utilitarian and consumerist ends, with the sole aim of aspiring to happiness or well-being. A claim that can be a source of misunderstanding, for yoga is also about renouncing worldly pleasures, freeing oneself from all desires and freeing oneself from the clutter that stands in the way of a self-sufficient inner life.

Today, well-being can become an obligation, a social pressure weighing on everyone’s shoulders. This frantic pursuit of happiness can paradoxically create more stress and anxiety in those who fail to achieve it, thus reinforcing the demand for wellness products and services.

In this competitive market, there is also a glaring imbalance between those who can afford regular access to yoga classes, retreats and equipment, and those who cannot. This disparity perpetuates a system of colonization, where certain aspects of a culture are exploited for commercial purposes, while the people from these cultures do not always have access to the fruits of their own spiritual heritage. Pulan Devi, Susanna Barkataki (social network influencers on yoga and cultural appropriation) and other activists criticize this European and American-oriented market, characterized not only by its high prices, but also by the lack of representation for people of color. Their struggle also encompasses overweight people, whose classes are often not adapted, which can make them feel uncomfortable and not included in this world often centered on the image of perfection. On this subject, Tirumalai Krishnamacharya has asserted, “It’s not up to the person to adapt to yoga, it’s up to yoga to adapt to the person.

Moreover, yoga is often used as a kind of “toolbox”. Like the trend towards body-building during the Industrial Revolution, yoga can be seen as a means of increasing personal and professional efficiency, of coping better with daily stress, without calling into question the structures of the world we live in. This utilitarian vision often reduces yoga to a simple tool for productivity, distorting its original vocation of self-understanding and liberation. In her book Yoga, the new spirit of capitalism2, Zineb Fahsi suggests that the shift in yoga’s orientation from a quest for liberation to a focus on performance may stem from certain ascetic currents of Haṭha yoga. These currents were exclusively focused on the acquisition of siddhis aimed at exercising dominion over the material world. This connection between yoga and these powers suggests how yoga could later be associated with self-improvement practices.

Zineb Fashi also adds: “The extreme responsibility conferred on the individual for his or her own happiness and health, coupled with a demand for self-improvement, represent a new morality in line with neoliberal ideology, which encourages the individual to conceive of himself or herself as a small business”. Sculpt your body, get rid of wrinkles, boost your libido, regulate your hormones, stay healthy for life… these are just some of the promises made by many yoga classes. Clearly, it’s more profitable to promote yoga by highlighting its concrete benefits than to encourage people to practice it without any particular expectations.

1  Rodney William, L’appropriation culturelle, Editions Anacaona, 166p. 2021

2 Fahsi, Z. (2023). Le yoga, nouvel esprit du capitalisme. Les Editions Textuel. p.23